Bethel University Criminology Hypothetical Crime Problem Essay For this unit’s Complete assignment, write a comprehensive APA Analysis paper (minimum 1500 | Course Hero

Bethel University Criminology Hypothetical Crime Problem Essay For this unit’s Complete assignment, write a comprehensive APA Analysis paper (minimum 1500 words) in which you analyze, explain, and apply all the concepts, you have gained in CCJ 5300. You must incorporate and cite, using correct APA citation format, at least four different scholarly research sources. Be sure your paper demonstrates a comprehensive understanding of the READ and ATTEND sections from this unit. In-line citations must be used in the body of your paper, and all research sources must be fully cited at the conclusion of your paper. Correct APA citation formats must be used.

Be sure to format and document your sources throughout the paper using APA formatting guidelines. If you need support on how to formulate your APA Analysis paper, you may refer to your APA Template under the Resource tab or contact the CPS Librarians. Please refer to your grading rubric for guidance.

Your paper should include the following:

Using criminological terms and concepts describe a hypothetical crime problem in a specific area or jurisdiction type.
Using the concepts and techniques you have learned during this course include details and discussion as to frequency of occurrence, patterns of offending, patterns of victimization and enough supporting detail to inform a coordinated law enforcement response.
Discuss the crime mapping methods that would be employed to identify this information. You should incorporate a theoretical component to your paper to help inform this response to your identified problem.
Describe what policing enforcement methods that would be most effective at reducing the frequency or severity of these offenses. Include discussion of any types of CPTED concepts such as alley gating, defensible space or others that might be also employed to deter or mitigate these types of offenses.
Discuss any technologies that might be employed to identify or address the identified problem. Research and include a real example of an enforcement method that has been successful in addressing a similar problem as the hypothetical example you created.

(1500 word minimum. Cite sources. no plagiarism) © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR RESALE OR DISTRIBUTION
CHAPTER
Future Issues
in Crime Mapping
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
12
W
This chapter provides a brief discussion of future O
issues in crime mapping.
These issues include technological opportunities and challenges, the future
O issues, and issues
of crime mapping research and education, implementation
related to ethics and privacy. After studying this chapter,
Dyou should be able to:
• Identify some future opportunities and challenges facing
S the field of crime
mapping.
,
• Identify future directions for crime mapping research and education.
S
H
This introductory text discussed several A
issues related to crime
analysis and crime mapping. The first section examined the theoretiN The second section
cal underpinnings of the spatial context of crime.
discussed the data available to crime analystsI and provided a brief
discussion of the limitations of the data that isAused in crime analysis
Introduction
and in the creation of crime maps. In addition, Chapter 5 reviewed
the relevant research of GIS applications in law enforcement. Section
3 provided an introduction to statistics and also
1 included the types of
analyses crime analysts perform on a regular basis.
5
This last chapter provides a brief examination of the academic,
practical, and technological issues that crime 9
analysts will face in the
coming years.
5
General Topics
T
S
In the world of geographic information systems there are very
few sources for data that remain constant over time. As the use of GIS
increases in many fields, including crime analysis, there are always new
data sources that will be added or modified to provide more knowledge
to the decision makers. Remember that with GIS, we want to think
along the lines of the business intelligence field where data becomes
469
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CHAPTER 12
Future Issues in Crime Mapping
information and information becomes actionable knowledge. In the
future, it may not be enough to know where all the crimes happened;
we will need to know why they happened and what the root causes of
crime really are. There are many sociological theories, psychological
theories, and, as we discovered, criminological theories of why crime
happens, but these are usually very general to crime and society as a
whole rather than to individual geographic groups. As crime mapping
progresses, we will learn how to use tools from other fields of analytical
study to apply to crime analysis. We have already learned that some of
the lessons learned by biologists
who track animals in the wild may
W
have some application with tracking suspects in criminal offenses; we
O that crime evolves much like a communicould learn in the future
cable disease and that epidemiological
research or methods may have
O
some use within the crime
analysis
field.
Other related fields, such as
D
anthropology, archaeology, biology, psychics, and geology, may provide
answers to questions weSdon’t know how to answer with today’s GIS
crime fighting tools. In addition,
as we explore new methods and new
,
sets of data, we’ll be able to add more information behind those points,
lines, and polygons. For example, a city may have been drawing sewer
and water lines all alongS
in their enterprise GIS system with attributes
such as length, material,H
and build date. As they progress with GIS, they
find that they can also do flow analyses but need to add the elevation
A
and material flow values to the pipe segments in the GIS data so that
they can do modeling toN
find out what happens if they add a T branch
at a certain juncture. With
I crime analysis, as we add new elements of
information, such as modus operandi (MO) data to GIS points of
A
where and when a crime occurred, we can start using the data to find
trends, patterns, series, and clusters of crime by type and MO characteristics more easily. We1may want to later include US Census Bureau
data, zoning data, and other elements we do not always use in crime
5
analysis but later find might assist in our analysis or trend detection.
9 for additional data from the health departThis may lead to the desire
ment and other agencies
5 concerning welfare programs and teenage
pregnancy levels in specific sections with high crime. Who knows, at
T find out that historical soil contamination
some point we may even
S areas that are now downtown actually may
from pesticides in certain
have some causal effect on crime. There is no end to the data we will
need when we know how to use the data we already have.
As with any technology implementation, technology itself changes
over time, sometimes dramatically. Think about the fact that just a
short 10–20 years ago we were talking about how huge a 20 megabyte
hard drive was for a new computer. Now the storage capacity of your
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Education and Crime Mapping
471
simple desktop PC has more capability than a whole bank of servers
that filled an entire basement of a building a mere 25 years ago. We’ll
see more and more of our maps being used in patrol cars and other
active enforcement activities. This will lead to questions concerning
the accuracy of the data for some places that may have been neglected
during the data creation phase or are older than some of the other data.
We will find that exact accuracy may become much more important
than it is now as courts begin to use GIS analysis to convict persons
charged with crimes (e.g., Megan’s Law and others, which require suspects to adhere to certain distance requirements
W from something).
Presentation devices will change as they already have in the past few
O ago, bringing a PC
years within the court environment. A short time
and a movie into the courtroom was somewhat
O frowned upon, but
now, in some modern day courtrooms, videoD
conferencing and electronic media are status quo.
Education and Crime Mapping
S
,
The academic future of crime mapping looks very promising.
S offering courses that
More and more colleges across the country are
are focused on GIS in law enforcement. In a survey
H of 26 police agencies
across the country, Paynich et al. (2007) found that one of the frequent
A
complaints about hiring new crime analysts is that the recruits lacked
N the new recruits
hands-on experience and/or training. In addition,
were either very knowledgeable about crime Ior criminal justice but
had very little background in statistics or crime analysis and crime
mapping computer applications or vice versa.A
One respondent stated
in the survey, “I’d add in geographic profiling, psychology, and criminology courses. I think that you need to have a1working knowledge of
criminology and especially . . . how the process flows (from dispatch to
5 but you can’t work in
the courts). Not that this makes mapping easier,
9 are plenty of skilled
a vacuum.” Another respondent observed, “There
GIS people out there, but very few understand5crime data. They often
make maps that are misleading and are not really actionable for the
T
guys on the street.”
Although the number of college courses S
about GIS applications
in law enforcement have grown, the use of crime mapping by law
enforcement also continues to grow. The use of crime mapping by
law enforcement agencies increased from 14.5% in 2000 to 17.9%
in 2003 (Chamard, 2006). In addition, if the use of GIS by smaller
agencies is to increase, more widely available training is needed in the
academic realm. Smaller departments, for example, are much more
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CHAPTER 12
Future Issues in Crime Mapping
likely to discontinue the use of crime mapping. This discontinuance
is strongly related to staffing in technical support (Chamard, 2003).
In the future, this may lead to new and simpler ways to provide mapping technology to these smaller agencies that do not have staff on
hand to develop GIS for their agency. Google Earth and other similar
applications seem to be on the forefront of offering such services to
smaller agencies without the technical staff to develop dedicated GIS
functionality, for example.
Crime Mapping Research
W
The future of crime-mapping-related
research is also promising. The
O
largest national criminal-justice-related organizations, the Academy of
O(ACJS) and the American Society of CrimiCriminal Justice Sciences
nology (ASC), both hostD
panels focused specifically on GIS applications
in criminal justice at their
S annual meetings. In addition, the National
Institute of Justice (NIJ) has to date held 9 national research conferences on crime mapping,with a 10th scheduled in August of 2009. Other
associations, such as the International Association of Crime Analysts
(IACA), also hold annual
S conferences with special panels and presentations on crime mapping research. There are also many local crime
analysis associations thatHroutinely provide training on aspects of GIS
with a crime analysis focus,
A and several private vendors specialize in
various forms of GIS training
N outside of the academic environment to
fill training needs.
I
In addition to conferences,
several publications have emerged in
recent years that are dedicated
solely to GIS applications in criminal
A
justice. ESRI, for example, publishes the Public Safety Log: GIS for Public Safety. In a recent issue of ESRI’s ArcNews, several articles focused
1 and highlighted how crime mapping and
on GIS in law enforcement
analysis can improve the5effectiveness and efficiency of a department.
For example, one article discussed how the United States Postal Service
9
utilizes GIS to track the purchase and redemption of money orders (a
5 to launder money because individuals can
common tool for criminals
purchase money orders under
T $3000 without providing identification).
These money orders then can be redeemed anywhere in the United
S
States. “The department has embraced the use of GIS technology to
more effectively detect and in some cases deter crime. GIS maps show
where suspicious activities may be occurring and link data on individuals, transactions, and/or offices to reveal potential criminal patterns.
Modern mapping and spatial analysis also help USPS managers make
sense of extensive transactional databases and millions of bits of data to
ensure they are meeting regulatory compliance” (ESRI, 2008, p. 33).
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Technology
473
Essentially, post offices and individuals with an unusually high
number of suspicious money order transactions can be flagged and
investigated. The USPS article is a prime example of many other crimemapping-related pieces that are being published in academic and trade
journals. Geography and Public Safety (put forth by The National Institute
of Justice (NIJ), Mapping and Analysis for Public Safety (MAPS), and
the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS)) is another
recent publication that is dedicated to crime-mapping-related issues.
In this publication, readers can find discussions of theory and practice
related to crime mapping as well as helpful tipsW
for crime analysts.
Geographic Profiling and ForecastingOCrime
O profiling and crime
In 1999, Harries predicted that geographic
forecasting methodologies would continue toDevolve and gain more
support in the future. The research and literature that has been reviewed
S
throughout this text indicates that Harries’ prediction was correct. In
, free and for purchase,
geographic profiling, a number of programs, both
are available to help analysts make predictions about offender decision
making in efforts to arrest serial offenders. In forecasting crime, analysts
S
are developing models that include related crimes to identify emerging
H
hot spots (for example, examining robbery, assault,
and burglary to
identify an emerging drug hot spot; Olligschlaeger,
2003).
A
With this increase in the availability of training and software to
N analysts across the
perform such analyses, we are also seeing more
I much disagreement
country using the software and tools. There is still
about what works best, when and why it works,Aand what related skills
are needed to make the analysis products useful to the law enforcement
officials who are doing the investigations. In many cases and inside
1
many police agencies, these predictions and analyses
are still met with
skepticism among the investigation personnel,
but
they are gaining
5
credibility as time goes on and more analysts use these techniques
9 in social perception
effectively. Using these tools is almost a change
and policies more than just a technological issue.
5
T
S
Technological advances within the last decade have provided many
Technology
opportunities in crime mapping. High resolution and 3-D applications have enabled analysts to make maps of buildings, such as apartment buildings or correctional institutions, which illustrate problem
areas within these buildings. The use of GPS in police cruisers allows
for enormous potential in data collection and in producing real time
maps for administrators and patrol officers alike. In the future we
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may see that GPS, photography, and 3-D views are extended out from
the officer’s vehicle to handheld devices the officer can carry right to
the crime scene. There are still some hurdles to cross when making
accurate GPS in a small enough unit to be carried by the officer at all
times during his shift, but it is on the horizon. Many aerial photography companies now do more frequent updates for locations with
high growth, so the aerial photos are increasing in detail and accuracy
over time as well. There are also some more widely available satellite
images that show other elements such as elevation, weather, and many
other types of data.
W
Automated programs, such as the one that Hicks (2007) designed in
O and analysis to be completed on a routine
Minneapolis, allows for maps
basis, saving valuable time
Oand resources. Further research and development in geocoding through
D entity-named extraction is also on the horizon. Many analysts across the country are starting to develop multilevel
S
geocoding processes to increase
the accuracy of the points they analyze.
An example is to use parcel
, addresses as the first pass to geocode calls
for service data, then use a verified point address file as a second pass,
and finally use the street centerline file to geocode the remaining rows of
data that did not geocodeSin the first two passes. With each run through
the data, the addresses that
H do not match at one level match at the next,
so your overall data is more accurate in the long run.
A
Commercial applications, such as Google Street View, which is
N and Google Earth, allows the user to see a
a feature of Google Maps
360 degree panoramic street-level
view of selected cities at ground level.
I
Launched in May 2007, only five American cities were included, but it
A
has since expanded and includes many more US cities and locations
in France, Italy, Australia, and Japan. Useful in both the practical and
academic realms, Google
1 Street View provides enormous detail and
power in crime mapping. Many crime analysis product vendors are
5
making use of this functionality to deliver maps in a new way to law
9 purchase their products.
enforcement agencies that
5
Other Issues
T
S down to it, there are very few limitations
When it comes right
to what can happen in the future with GIS. We may find that aerial
photos, CCTV, and 3-D modeling get so good that when a call comes
out of a robbery, the officer can simply hit a few buttons on his vehicle
computer, and a map will pop up that shows the quickest way to get
there and where all his backup units will come from. With another
click of the button, he will be able to see CCTV images of the robbery
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Other Issues
475
scene and watch the suspects run behind a business and get into a
white vehicle, then the officer will be able to tag that vehicle electronically while he is responding. CCTV and aerial or satellite images will
track the tagged vehicle, and information will be sent directly to all the
units that are responding. If the suspects take hostages, a 3-D model
of the buildings and access points around the crime scene will pop up
to allow SWAT units to position themselves the most advantageously
through line-of-site analysis and other tools right from their vehicles.
Although this may sound somewhat like science fiction, some of these
applications of GIS are already available but not
W yet widely used. We
may also see crime analysis units coming to the scene of major crimes
with a vehicle that is equipped with everythingO
they have at their desks
back at the office. The units will assist and runO
intelligence and investigative analyses for the on-scene detectives toD
aid the investigation in
real time. This type of crime analysis activity is already happening in
S
Riverside, California.
While crime maps are wonderful tools for
, crime analysts, and
the future holds even more promise for new ways of using this awesome tool, there are still unresolved issues related to ethics and privacy.
S and analyzing large
Modern technology allows for ease in accessing
quantities of data. As discussed earlier in this H
text, if this data (in raw
or map form) falls into the wrong hands, it can be used to discriminate
A
against people or areas (such as in the process of redlining). With the
Nfederal, state, county,
advent of new data sharing agreements among
and local law enforcement that are either happening
now or on the
I
horizon for many states, there will be ownership and need-to-know
A
issues with some of this massive quantity of law enforcement data that
is currently or soon will become available. The analyst must be able
to be discrete and keep focused on helping the
1 investigation and not
hinder the investigation through information overload. GIS enables
5
us to access a lot of data, and sometimes we can manipulate that data
enough to give the end users some information,9but too much information can bury what they really need to know. 5
That is why the analyst
must analyze the data and information available and produce maps
T can be acted upon
and other products that provide knowledge that
S
rather than just muddy the playing field.
In addition, crime analysts need to find an appropriate balance
between an individual’s right to privacy and the public’s right to
information. In addition, agencies must also continue to address barriers to implementing crime mapping in their agencies, including (but
not limited to) money, training, social changes within the department,
and staffing.
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Recommended Reading
Boba, R. (2008). A crime mapping technique for assessing vulnerable targets for terrorism in local communities. In S. Chainey &
L. Tompson (Eds.), Crime mapping case studies: Practice and research
(pp. 143–151). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Chainey, S., & Tompson, L. (Eds.). (2008). Crime mapping case
studies: Practice and research. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Groff, E. (2008). Simulating crime to inform theory and practice.
In S. Chainey & L. Tompson (Eds.), Crime mapping case studies: Practice
W Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
and research (pp. 133–142).
Monmonier, M. (1991).
O How to…
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